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Geometric properties of sensors: 4 - The Field

Conoscendo il campionamento e il numero dei fotoelementi per lato, automaticamente conosciamo il campo coperto dal sensore utilizzando un determinato telescopio.

Esempio: al fuoco del telescopio di Cavezzo è posta una telecamera Apogee Ap7p con sensore SiTE 512x512 fotoelementi quadrati di dimensione 24 micron. Qual'è la dimensione del campo celeste coperta dal sensore?
Dagli esempi riportati nella sezione campionamento sappiamo che ogni fotoelemento copre 2.24 secondi d'arco di cielo per lato dunque avremo 512*2.24 = 1146.9 secondi darco = 19.1 primi d'arco per lato.

Esistono parecchi siti e programmi gratuiti per calcolare in modo semplice ed automatico il campionamento e/o il campo coperto da una determinata combinazione di telescopi e camere CCD commerciali. Uno dei migliori a mio avviso è CCDCalc di Ron Wodaski , scaricabile in questo link .

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BIAS FRAME

Il BIAS FRAME altro non è che un DARK FRAME , ovvero un'immagine CCD ripresa con tutte le ottiche coperte da uno schermo nero, con tempo d'esposizione nullo. In molte camere CCD, come nelle DSLR, il tempo d'esposizione nullo non esiste: in tal caso una buona approssimazione può essere il tempo minimo d'esposizione permesso dall'hardware o dal software. Ad esempio la camera Apogee Ap7p in dotazione all' Osservatorio di Cavezzo permette esposizioni minime di 0,02 secondi, quanto basta per rendere trascurabile la minima quantità di corrente di buio creata nei due centesimi di secondo d'esposizione. Piuttosto, è di gran lunga più importante la corrente di buio accumulata negli ultimi pixel scaricati durante necessary for the second reading of the CCD which is never instantaneous, especially when the chips are large (eg> 1 megapixel ): this may lead to the formation of a gradient of brightness in the vertical image.

As we have already seen the introduction of the dark frame, the main use of the bias frame is to get the THERMAL FRAME that is the only component of the CCD which is directly proportional to exposure time and / or temperature 'exercise of the CCD. From this you can "rescale" (multiplying the pixels for a suitable constant) a thermal frame of a given exposure time to obtain another with a different exposure time equivalent. However, when you have the possibility is always convenient to take the dark frames with the same exposure time used to shoot RAW images.

Another equally important use of the bias frame is that it gives us the opportunity to make an initial diagnosis of our CCD camera.

image above you can see a bias frame "ideal": a perfect carpet of uniform noise with no structure or change in brightness. The histogram is a thin bell symmetrically centered on the average value (in this case 3145). Drawing a vertical profile (using the command Visualizza > Profilo di Astroart ) si ottiene un grafico perfettamente orizzontale oscillante ancora una volta nell'intorno del valore medio precedente.

Nell'immagine sotto vediamo invece un BIAS FRAME un po' più realistico e con alcuni difetti non del tutto trascurabili: innanzi tutto, le prime 3-4 righe di pixel in alto sono più luminose, identificando una probabile zona di accumulo di cariche; in secondo luogo, al semplice colpo d'occhio, è evidente una "struttura" più o meno regolare a linee orizzontali generate da interferenze elettromagnetiche e un chiaro gradiente di luminosità che intensifica queste linee mano a mano ci si avvicina alle ultime righe in basso del BIAS FRAME. Queste righe are brighter because of the "hump" on the right of the bell visible in the histogram. Then plotting the vertical profile of the image is then even more clearly the presence of a gradient of brightness caused by the accumulation of heat load during the "download" image from the CCD to the PC.


It 'clear that the closer you get to the ideal situation and "best" is our CCD camera. But there is a fundamental parameter, intrinsically linked to the bias frame, which can give us a first important information on the images that we can achieve with our CCD camera: the readout noise or read noise. " As we shall see, the read noise is one of the main sources of noise present in a CCD image and is closely linked to the actual dynamics can be obtained by a CCD camera.

For now we see how we can estimate the readout noise of our CCD camera using a set of bias frame.

course all digital images "hide" between a pixel read noise: BIAS FRAME perfect is what comes closest to its structure, however, as we have seen, we can hardly get closer to perfection: there is always some unwanted signal interference . To minimize these unwanted signals can use a trick: we take some bias frame (a dozen could fit) the one teniamo da parte mentre degli altri nove otteniamo un "master" BIAS FRAME ovvero li combiniamo insieme facendone la mediana (ad es. utilizzando il comando Strumenti > Pretrattamento di Astroart ).

Ora sottraiamo la mediana dal singolo BIAS FRAME: ciò che otteniamo è un READ NOISE FRAME ovvero una riproduzione del solo rumore di lettura della nostra camera CCD (immagine sopra). Anche se purtroppo rimane amcora traccia delle strutture orizzontali causate dai disturbi elettromagnetici, queste in realtà sono di debole intensità come ci conforta la visione dell'istogramma rappresentato da una campana quasi perfetta. Come abbiamo già visto , la standard deviation, or the width of the bell, gives us a numerical estimate of the noise present in the frame, about 2.7 ADU (ADU is the unit used to denote the value of the pixel after scanning, or after processing by a potential difference to a whole number determined by the analog to digital converter of the CCD camera). But the read noise is usually reported by the manufacturers in electrons (per pixel) to transform the value from ADU to the corresponding electrons need to know the gain of the CCD camera, which is also often reported in the paper the characteristics of CCD camera, or how many electrons corresponds to an ADU. Ap7p supplied for Apogee Centre to Cavendish e-/ADU that the gain is 4.4 multiplied by 2.7 is approximately 11.9-and readout noise (the data-sheet says dell'Apogee 10.2 e-).

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Noise

brings us to introduce one of the most controversial topics for the young amateur digital noise.
One might be inclined to think that the dark frame is a form of "noise" to be removed from our raw images, not exactly. The dark frame is a signal: a sign of trouble but still a signal: the signal generated by dark current emitted by the CCD camera (or DSLR) at a given temperature and for a given exposure time. And luckily it's a sign! Luckily because, if we make the sensor work in the same conditions of exposure and temperature that we used to take the ' RAW image, this signal is "almost" perfectly reproducible.

But it is in that "almost" hiding, sneaky, the concept of noise .

provided evidence to back two dark frames in exactly the same conditions (same exposure time and same temperature). Now carefully analyze them pixel by pixel: are identical? Each pixel of coordinates (x, y) in the first dark frame has the same value in the corresponding pixel of the second dark frames? Certainly not. Of this we know it better by doing a simple subtraction: if we subtract the dark frame from the first second (or vice versa) will result in a new image with the pixel value around zero but not exactly all zero as you might expect.

Astroart has the essential tools for numerical analysis of the images as the histogram and the statistics window.

To better analyze this phenomenon we can generate a histogram: a histogram, the better we will see later, is a chart with the x-axis values \u200b\u200bof the pixels in the image in ascending order, and ordered the number pixel with that certain value. Well, the histogram of our image in the shape of a bell, with the peak at the value zero. This means that most of the pixels in the image have zero value, but many others have non-zero values, in the slightly greater than zero and some slightly less than zero. The bell shape is due to the fact that the more one deviates from the average pixel value (zero in this case), the lower the number of pixels in the image with that particular value. Ideally, if we had a perfect CCD camera, capable of playing two dark frames exactly alike, stealing from each other, we would get an image composed of all the pixels identically zero. It 's easy to see that the histogram of this image would be composed of a single column at the zero height equal to the number of pixels in the image. It is even more easy to deduce that the amplitude of the bell has a certain relation to the distribution of nonzero values \u200b\u200band thus is directly related to noise present in images taken with our CCD camera. The standard deviation , the statistics of the image shown in the box, it gives a direct measure of the dispersion of pixel values \u200b\u200bin the neighborhood of the average value (zero) and is therefore a quantity related to the "noise" image: the higher the standard deviation, the greater is the dispersion, the greater the "noise" that accompanies these images. Hence the concept of "noise" must be understood as a series of events that never allow the CCD to reproduce an image exactly equal to each other while operating in exactly the same conditions. In this case we used two identical dark frames but the same reasoning applies to any pair of FRAME taken using a CCD camera, two RAW images of any object in the sky, two flat field, two bias frame and so on.: We will never get two FRAME exactly equal to each other.
But what is worse is that we're going to do any math operation with the frames, such as the removal of DARK FRAME RAW image, so we're going to steal the map of thermal noise and BIAS RAW image, but also we're going to aggregate the noise in the two frames. What are the sources of noise and how can we do to minimize (note: we can only minimize and do not remove it entirely) the contribution of noise in the final image we will see in future posts.

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2 Analysis metallographic metallographic analysis

Oggi sono tornato al Poli a fare ulteriori analisi. Ho rifatto delle misure di micro durezza da affiancare a quelle dell'altra volta, poi ho lucidato il provino e l'ho esaminato per bene alla ricerca di inclusioni, impurità del materiale e corrosione intergranulare.
Il nuovo diagramma del profilo di durezza parla da solo. Ogni punto è una misura (e ci vuole almeno un minuto a farla, tanto per dare un'idea del tempo), ho messo insieme i nuovi e i vecchi valori. È evidente che il primo valore stranamente basso dell'altra volta era un errore di misura. Le cementazioni appaiono molto simili, al limite si può dire che quella del TTR è un po più tosta (più dura e più profonda).
Dopo la lucidatura ho ispezionato il provino with an optical microscope. I did a tour of the big cracks that are damaged in the side of the tooth, recognizing the typical morphology of this type of corruption, which by now I know all too well (I'm writing a thesis in these days). I tried
signs of intergranular oxidation. It is a phenomenon that occurs during cementation, in the period in which the part out of the oven and is cooled in water. The oxidation is usually removed by grinding the whole, but can sometimes be a little 'and in that case acts as a trigger point for fatigue cracks. Nothing, no oxidation.

What I can say now, with reasonable certainty is that the gears are just as good of TTR than the XT, at least in the specimens examined by me (my). The fact that they are damaged first, unfortunately, is not to be found in the quality of the gears themselves but external factors such as design errors, understaffed, misalignment, lack of lubrication, overloads (eg due to absence of the sprocket wheel) etc.. The unfortunately refers to the fact that there is a good chance that among other 25,000 miles I can start writing a new blog ...

With this last post I think I've finished my little adventure of bloggers. I would like to thank all the friends that I have read assiduously, and especially those who have left comments. Hello and next! Olivier

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Today I finally managed to go to Milan to do the analysis. Sprockets analyzed are those of the 3rd gear mounted on the clutch and were removed from my bike (TTR600 '99) and the XT's Wish (Forum XT600.it). The wheels show no signs of damage to both contact fatigue (pitting), only that my shot has 26,000 km and the wish of many more (50-80'000).
To isolate a tooth on which to do the analysis I did three cuts: one for the long approximately in the middle of the wheel, and two side (like cake) to remove the tooth. The tooth was then encased in a block of phenolic resin to be able to easily handle. All this can be seen in the first photo. After incorporation, the freshly cut surface of the tooth has been polished by machine with various abrasive papers. Then I attached the sample with a solution of Nital (nitric acid and alcohol) to highlight the hardened layer (you can also see in the picture that is more polished).
At this point I used the micro hardness tester to measure the hardness profiles. The hardness test by pressing a conical tip with a certain force at the surface and studying the imprint left. More material is hard, the smaller footprint, and measuring the latter dates back to hardness. All this happens in a very small scale and is under the microscope: the prints are great for a 20in microns are invisible to the eye. I made a sequence of measures (sewing, in the jargon) from the edge of the tooth (the surface) to about 1 mm in depth, measured every tenth of a millimeter. Plotting the results that jumps out is called the hardness profile.
In the picture there are two aspects to the comparison, let's see what can be said. It is evident that the value of the surface hardness is much greater than that to heart: the material is hardened. This is a classic gears and I expected it to 100%. The value of core hardness is equal in the two-wheel (about 400HV). This tells us that in all probability the material used is the same and is equal also treated in this area (quenching and tempering). Now begins the most critical part in the first value of the cementation of TTR is harder and deeper. This is NOT 'the result I expected: I thought the treatment of TTR was worse than the XT, but it did not appear. But there is a but. The first hardness value is lower than that in TT nell'XT. I do not know explain. It could be a measurement error or it could be the key to the dilemma. The mechanism of damage infatti avviene proprio in quella zona, nei primi 5 centesimi di materiale. Tutto questo ovviamente l'ho scoperto a casa una volta tracciati i diagrammi e quindi non ho potuto fare nessuna prova ulteriore. La prossima volta che vado a Milano rifaccio i profili, misurando con particolare cura nei pressi della superficie. Proverò anche fare delle prove di durezza classiche su quello che resta delle ruote. Se poi è confermata la misura di oggi chiederò aiuto a qualche professorone per cercare di capire com'è possibile che ci sia un profilo di durezza così strano, e magari ci scappa anche qualche analisi al SEM (microscopio elettronico). A presto!

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Switzerland

have just returned from a ride in Switzerland with TTR, that even at 2500 meters above sea level has behaved very well. In 680 miles the engine did not give any problem, then I would say that this maintenance is going to change officially fine!
I heard the professor with whom I make the argument, which gave me free access to the laboratory for metallographic analysis for the first 10 days of September, and soon the results of tests on the sprockets and TTR XT!

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Liberation!

In recent days I got rid of two headaches. The first is the cast, I removed this morning. All right, la mobilità della mano è ancora piuttosto limitata, ma dovrei recuperare in una settimana. La seconda è l'ultimo maledetto esame che mi rimaneva, che ho tolto di mezzo venerdì scorso.
Ora devo rimettermi a lavorare per la tesi. Il prof che mi segue è via ad un convegno, quindi se ne riparla tra una settimana. Intanto mi sono arrivati gli ingranaggi di wish del forum da analizzare e confrontare coi miei. Spero di riuscire a farlo prima delle vacanze.
Sono anche a caccia di un pignone da 16 denti per farmi una vacanzina in moto ad Agosto, ma sembra un'impresa impossibile trovarlo di questa stagione. Avrei dovuto muovermi prima. L'idea per la vacanza è risalire tutto il Ticino fino alla sorgente, al passo della Novena in Svizzera. I can not wait!

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calm

These days are gone for a slab and a visit to the wrist confirmed the 25 days of chalk. I am beginning to feel the need to ride a bike, a little 'because I'm sick and boxes to stay home to study, and a little' because they can not drive the car I just feel an invalid (I can drive very well, but ' insurance said that if I do not pay an accident). Fortunately, the wrist does not hurt but recover and I feel great, and then the synthetic gypsum is just really cool: lightweight and breathable.
The thesis work is stopped because he now has failed to make the machine tests and I is that we Alberto studying for the final exam and do not have time to address it. No tests, no laboratory: I have not examined the gear failure. On the other hand I'm still waiting for those users of the forum in order to make the comparison.

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Radio

Yesterday I went to Mede from Albert to do the work for the thesis. Where better to test for good Tittina? I have made along the Po Pavia Mede through streets of the field, 50 km off quiet, a real pleasure! We decided to turn from Albert arrived half an hour before lunch through the fields around his farm, where there are fun jump. 10 minutes later I was on the ground. Hidden in the grass I saw a huge hole and we are finished in full with the front wheel, hood forward like a cooked pear. The bike he has not done anything, although I would bet there and then to find the circle in front of wrong. I have peeled a bit 'around and I hurt my right wrist. In the afternoon after work I came home in motion (for asphalt this time) with a sore wrist. At home, I blindfolded and, remembering the bad experiences of someone on the forum, I started to information on the internet on the fracture of the scaphoid. I read that it is very common due to a fall similar to mine, and as the pain disappears in a few days, often the fracture is not recognized and treated properly, creating complications in the future. This was enough to pull on a bit of squeezing and convince me to go to the emergency room, which I did this morning. The doctor has just seen and touched, he said his "scaphoid", but half an hour and four plates after it turned out that it is a "fracture Articles of distal epiphysis RADIO DX. 25 days of chalk. Obviously not happy, but could have been worse (the scaphoid is from 6 to 12 weeks), and then I felt a real enduro without at least a split in the curriculum. Now they joke about it, I wonder if after a month without a bike I still want to play!

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But how nice the TTR!

Today I fixed those two things that I left behind yesterday and I did another ride. That's great, your satisfaction! I could not resist the temptation to make a couple of outgassing: the bike is that it is a pleasure, bolsa seems less than before, also because of the new transmission that I put. In fact, maybe I exaggerated a bit (15/52) because at 100 km / h the engine is almost at the limit, and the cruise has a more than on 80/90 on 70/80. I'll try to get a sprocket 16, but first I want to test it off road.
Next week will probably start to do some analysis on the wheels that I removed. I made an agreement with Eyelash Wish and the forum send me other wheels for comparative tests.

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E 'DONE! Licorice

this morning I got up early full of good intentions but I had to go shopping and attend to other matters. While I was at the supermarket, I bought the oil (Castrol GPS). The only thing I could do in the morning was to close the valve cover and adjust the game. I touched up a second exhaust valves, but the game was not busted at work, it surprised me a bit. After lunch it was time to reassemble the engine to the chassis. I tried for half an hour alone. M'è rose on the nervous accomplice in the heat and mosquitoes and then I took 10 minutes of meditation at the end of which I have decided that it alone is not humanly possible. With the help of my father it took smadonnamenti another half hour. Do not ask me how I did it but eventually I managed to put it on. The only advice I would give to those who were to venture is to lock the clutch lever with a clamp, or with the engine mounted one realizes that in turn is a wrong position and stuck the oil reservoir. Replace all the various
amenicoli is a mind insane. Perhaps the mechanics are samples of Japanese tetris, tetris sucks but to me, especially when each piece weighs 5 pounds. Luckily now I got familiar with the disassembled carburetor mounts so that I have also made key purpose (Allen sawn etc.). However, I definitely spend less time putting together il motore che a rimontare tutto il resto.

Sono le 19:01. Finito di avvitare l'ultima vite comincia a battermi il cuore. Giuro, è un' emozione fortissima, un misto tra paura, curiosità ed eccitazione: indescrivibile a chi non l'ha mai provata. Non capisco più niente, corro in casa a prendere le chiavi, tiro l'aria e BAM, parte ALLA PRIMA PEDALATA! Ho un sorriso da orecchio a orecchio. Spurgo l'olio dal filtro (non so come sono riuscito a non dimenticarmene in quel momento), mi siedo su una sedia e osservo il motore che gira al minimo: E' FATTA. Non ho ancora montato la trasmissione nuova, quindi spengo, riappendo la moto al tetto della casetta e tiro giù la ruota dietro. Quando ho finito di montare la trasmissione, mi chiama mia madre a tavola, ma faccio ancora in tempo a montare il para motore: la moto è pronta per un giretto. Mangio in 5 minuti, prendo il casco ed via: sembra un anno che non vado in moto. Prima del buio sono riuscito a fare una decina di km, tutti in quinta e in terza, cambiando spesso marcia. Sembra proprio tutto a posto, la voglia di scannare un po' il motore c'è ma resisto: voglio farmi un po di Km tranquilli, tipo rodaggio, sopratutto per gli ingranaggi nuovi e per lo spinotto che ho cambiato. Mancano un paio di dettagli: la leva della frizione è rotta, c'è un tubo che perde un po' d'olio e manca la guarnizione al tappo del serbatoio. Sistemerò tutto domani. Sono stremato.

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Today I worked all day. The next morning I wait for the courier disassembled and cleaned the oil tank, and the linkage arm bearings. Towards noon the bell rang, so I abandoned the work and I started to unpack and check the order of KEDO. All right, apart from a set of bearings that I ordered wrong. The kits, emery "Athena is great, there really is everything. I've got the invoice in the envelope also found a wheel of licorice, really nice idea.
the afternoon I went back to work and I reinstalled the lateral (with new clutch), the cylinder and head. Nessun grosso problema, a parte certe viti che non sono riuscito a tirare con la dinamometrica. Per le due del cilindro mi sono ingegnato a saldare un dado su una chiave aperta. Al dado si collega la dinamometrica, che però deve formare un angolo di a 90 gradi con la chiave aperta (foto), altrimenti la coppia di serraggio risulta errata. Sulle viti della testa e del cilindro ho messo dell'antigrippante al rame, per prevenire l'ossidazione. Sulle viti dell'albero a camme ho messo del frenafiletti medio.
Domani chiudo il coperchio delle valvole, regolo il gioco e poi sono pronto a rimettere il motore sul telaio. Sono abbastanza a pezzi, ma mi sono decisamente divertito. Ho veramente apprezzato il fatto di aver catalogato tutte le viti in ordine: di tutti purchases made those 3 € of paper bags were by far the best spent. There was a time that I have forgotten or back of the pieces that had to reflect on the provision of vines: everything smoothly.

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closed the coffin

Today I started to reassemble the engine.
After removing what remained of the old silicone seal, I cleaned everything with the fuel and the compressor. To remove the silicone gasket I found an incredibly easy method: it is the steel brush for drill, but used with the tool. The drill is running too strong, and the effect is far too violent, while the tool (1 revolution per second) cleans well without scoring the surface of the housing. Before putting the black paste, I tried to close the housing two or three times for training and found two things. The first is a bastard circlip (arrow) is oriented as in the picture (horizontal) otherwise unable to get to the stop and go up against the oil strainer. The second thing is that the bearings were out of place, and the casing does not close properly (half remained mm gap). You probably have moved during washing in the washing machine in grinding, and heat to 60 degrees. There was no way to put them in the cold hammer: I had to put the casing left in the oven at 100 degrees for half an hour (do not tell my mother), after which the bearings could move easily by hand. Verifictato cool and fit well this time, I smeared the black paste with the help of a syringe. I tightened the screws (must be tightened in a precise sequence in the shop manual) and I put the gears on the right side, including the clutch housing. Now stopped because I miss the seals kedo. Not to be left with our hands, I packed one and the oil tank, to be able to well to clean the inside (there is a filter there too). Tomorrow we will continue.

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The status of German policy has become "sent", and an email informing me that I receive the goods in 3 - 5 days, we hope! I went to reply and I did install the new gear.

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Copper Good news?

arrived transmission gears, punctually. The first thing that struck me is that the parties coated copper. Is written on the envelopes so big MADE IN JAPAN and a card with lettering in Japanese confirming its provenance. I worked a bit
ducts of the head, eliminating some of the bib and polished for what little I could. Maybe in the coming days I give him a sabbiatina, covering critical parts (valve seats and guides) with adhesive tape. I polished the piston crown, hoping it will stick less easily scale. My order kedo meanwhile has gone from "in process" to "backorder" which means you do not have to store everything I asked. It will be a long thing? I hope not!
However now I can start to reassemble. Tomorrow I think I'm going to reply to me mounted on the new gear (you need the press).